The meaning of the parent–child relationship undergoes significant changes as children and their parents
move through the life cycle. During infancy and toddlerhood, children’s subjective experience is largely
based on their attachments to and dependence on caregivers, who, in turn, experience strong attachment
to their children and an intense sense of responsibility for all aspects of their wellbeing. Relationship
meanings and vantage points of both children and parents undergo major developmental changes as the
physical, cognitive and psychosocial capabilities of children unfold. Parents, while experiencing their own
adult developmental changes, respond differentially, according to the changes in their developing child. In
early primary school, children regard parents as all-knowing and all-powerful. They have limited ability
in understanding the dynamics of parent–child relationships, and expect their parents to meet their needs
and solve their problems. By late primary school, children’s capabilities, needs and expectations have
changed significantly to reflect greater independence and autonomy, as well as an increased understanding
of parent–child relationships and their own contributions to it. Further dramatic changes in meaning and
vantage points occur during adolescence and continue into the early, middle and late adult years.
Developmental diversity
Parents worldwide share a common goal of caring for their children in a manner that fosters their physical,
cognitive and psychosocial development and wellbeing. However, the ways in which parents raise
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their children show great diversity, depending on their ethnic, racial, religious, gender and socioeconomic
backgrounds. This diversity is also influenced by the beliefs, values, expectations and life circumstances
of parents and their children, which may change over time. For example, relationships between teenagers
and their parents today differ significantly from those of their parents’ or grandparents’ generation. The
current information revolution may further influence the diversity of parent–child relationships with outcomes
that are yet to be seen. All parent–child relationships have a great deal in common, but even
with similar backgrounds and life circumstances, families follow diverse developmental courses, because
parents and children interact with one another and their environments in unique ways.
SUMMARY
11.1 Define identity and describe the factors that influence the development of a personal identity
during adolescence.
A key task of adolescence is successful resolution of Erikson’s psychosocial crisis of identity versus role
confusion. Identity formation involves selectively integrating some aspects of earlier childhood identity
and discarding others. Successful resolution of the identity crisis of adolescence depends on the
opportunities to experiment with different social roles and activities. Individual differences in identity
achievement are due to culture, gender roles, peer influences, parenting styles and life circumstances
experienced by adolescents, which may increase or decrease opportunities for exploration. Marcia (1966)
identified four identity status types: (1) identity achievement, (2) diffusion, (3) moratorium and (4) foreclosure.
Adolescents tend to move from less developed to more developed status types, but in highly
individual patterns.
11.2 Explain how the sense of self develops during adolescence and describe how self-esteem is
affected by adolescence.
Self-concept is based on more abstract beliefs and values than the concrete and comparative ideas of self
during childhood. Increased perspective-taking ability may reveal ‘true’ and ‘false’ selves in relation to
interactions with different people, but this can reflect positive experimentation with different roles that
contribute to self-concept. Self-esteem decreases significantly between childhood and mid-adolescence,
and more dramatically for girls than for boys. This sex difference is probably anchored to sex-role differences,
body image dissatisfaction in girls as well as boys, and the differential boost to self-worth that
romantic relationships bring to adolescent boys and girls.
11.3 Compare how parent–child relationships differ during childhood and adolescence, and
discuss how intergenerational conflicts affect parent–child relationships during adolescence.
Parent–child relationships become less asymmetrical in terms of the balance of power during adolescence
compared with childhood, as a result of adolescents’ push for autonomy. There are wide individual differences
in the degree of autonomy achieved by adolescents, depending on parenting styles and cultural
and gender-based norms and attitudes. Conflict between adolescents and their parents may arise over
autonomy issues and everyday responsibilities, but rarely over basic beliefs and values. Intergenerational
conflict lessens towards the end of adolescence and, for most parents and their adolescent children, is not
damaging to their basic relationship, which generally remains warm and positive.
11.4 Discuss the importance of peer groups to adolescents, and how adverse and positive peer
group experiences affect adolescent development.
During adolescence, close same-sex cliques of up to six peers gradually meld into mixed-sex cliques and
larger, looser amalgamations of several cliques called crowds. Cliques and crowds provide the backdrop
for new cross-sex interactions, including romantic relationships. Peer group conformity within
cliques and crowds is not as strong as once thought, and adolescents seek out different kinds of
advice and support from both parents and peers. Nonetheless, for a minority of adolescents, ineffective
parenting and longstanding peer difficulties propel them towards peer group experiences in gangs.
632 PART 5 Adolescence
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Gang membership introduces many of these adolescents to a criminal career, and may exacerbate the preexisting
interpersonal difficulties that predispose adolescent males to gang membership. As well, bullying
within the peer group can seriously affect the psychosocial development and adjustment of victims and
bullies alike. Positive peer relationships include adolescent same-sex friendships that are high in intimacy
and mutual support and are an essential bridge to successful romantic relationships, which may also begin
during adolescence. Romantic relationships are generally pursued through dating, with prescribed roles
and behaviours for boys and girls. Early dating relationships tend to be more superficial and less intimate
and enduring than those in late adolescence.
11.5 Discuss the changes in sexual activities that occur during adolescence, and how sexual
orientation and adolescent pregnancy can affect psychosocial development and adjustment.
During adolescence, most individuals experience their first sexual intercourse. The age when this occurs
is becoming earlier, depending on gender, cultural constraints and peer influences. The double standard
still exists in Western and non-Western societies, giving males greater licence for premarital sex than
females. Sexual orientation is the gender context in which sexual attraction and activity occurs. Sexual
orientation minority status — lesbian, gay or bisexual — may pose additional challenges to identity formation
and sexual maturation during adolescence, with homophobia leading to adverse experiences that
make ‘coming out’ a stressful experience for many youths. Teenage pregnancy and parenthood can pose
significant developmental risks for both parents and children born to young parents. Unless adequate supports
are in place, teenage mothers, in particular, run the risk of a lifelong trajectory of disadvantage. So,
it is important that teenage parents complete their education and receive family and community support.
KEY TERMS
adolescent egocentrism The tendency of adolescents to perceive the thoughts, motives and actions of
other people from their own perspective.
autonomy An individual’s ability to govern and regulate their own thoughts, feelings and actions freely
and responsibly while at the same time overcoming feelings of shame and doubt; independence and
control over one’s life; the ability to make one’s own decisions.
clique A small, closely knit adolescent peer group of around six members who share similar values,
interests and activities, and exclude individuals who do not share these values, interests and activities.
crisis A normative challenge through which personal growth and development occurs.
crowd A large, loosely knit peer group averaging about twenty members, with a similarity in values or
activities generally consisting of two to four cliques.
dating script The understood rules of a dating arrangement including accepted gender roles.
deviancy training A group-based learning process in which antisocial behaviour is modelled and
reinforced, such as in adolescent gangs.
double standard A gender-based difference in attitude, advocating sexual permissiveness for males but
not females.
gender identity The psychological sense of being male or female.
gender role The degree of masculinity or femininity that an individual feels.
generation gap A popular perception of a deep and fundamental divide between parental and
adolescent children’s attitudes and world views.
homophobia Fear, dread, hostility or prejudice directed towards gay and lesbian persons and the
resulting mistreatment and discrimination.
identity A comprehensive and coherent sense of self.
identity achievement The attainment of a coherent sense of self after a period of exploration.
identity diffusion A state where the individual has neither explored nor committed to an identity;
failure to achieve a relatively coherent, integrated and stable identity.
CHAPTER 11 Psychosocial development in adolescence 633
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Created from scu on 2020-05-03 03:25:01.
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identity foreclosure Commitment to an identity without prior exploration.
identity moratorium Active exploration of possible roles and different responsibilities without a
commitment to a definite identity.
imaginary audience A cognitive bias during adolescence whereby the individual feels that other
people totally share their own concerns about appearance and behaviour, and subsequently act
self-consciously as if in front of a critical audience.
negative identity An identity emerging from foreclosure that is typified by antisocial values associated
with membership of urban gangs and criminal or extremist organisations.
personal fable Adolescents’ belief that their own lives embody a special story that is heroic and
completely unique and that no-one else can understand them.
propinquity Physical closeness, presence or proximity between individuals.
psychological moratorium A period of developmental suspension between childhood security and
adult responsibilities when young people experiment with different roles and experiences.
role confusion A state of uncertainty in relation to personal identity.
self-esteem The evaluative aspect of self; the individual’s feeling of self-worth; an individual’s belief
they are an important, competent, powerful and worthwhile person who is valued and appreciated.
sexual orientation The gender of persons to whom an individual feels sexually attracted; including
straight, gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 Describe the psychosocial challenges Erikson attributes to the stage of identity versus role confusion.
How did Marcia expand upon Erikson’s ideas and what contribution does his model make to the
understanding of identity development during adolescence?
2 How are parent–child relationships typified during adolescence? Which factors influence adolescents’
degree of autonomy?
3 Describe the nature and role of friendships during adolescence.
4 How do romantic relationships differ between early and late adolescence?
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1 ‘Adolescent peer groups make a negative contribution to teenagers’ social–emotional development.’
Critically evaluate this statement.
2 Discuss the pros and cons of the following statement: ‘Young adolescents should not be involved in
recreational drug use.’
3 Should adults intervene in cases of schoolyard bullying of teenagers?
4 Information technology has transformed the peer experiences of today’s teenagers. Critically discuss
this statement.
APPLICATION QUESTIONS
1 Test your understanding of key concepts in this chapter by matching the correct terms from the list
below to an applicable example. Note: There are several distracter terms in the list that do not apply
to the examples below. Some examples might also match with more than one term.
634 PART 5 Adolescence
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Created from scu on 2020-05-03 03:25:01.
Copyright © 2018. Wiley. All rights reserved.
Adolescent egocentrism Homophobia
Autonomy Identity diffusion
Bullying Identity foreclosure
Clique Identity moratorium
Crowd Negative identity
Dating script Parental monitoring
Deviancy training Personal fable
Double standard Propinquity
Gang Role confusion
Gender identity Self-esteem
Generation gap Sexual orientation
(a) Ben, aged 17, has recently auditioned for The Voice. He is certain that he will be chosen to appear
and has great confidence in his stage presence and his personality. He believes that he has a unique
style of singing that will take him right to the top. His friends are afraid that Ben is in for a big
let-down — they have heard him sing, but no-one wants to tell him not to audition.
(b) Elizabeth is in Year 12. Most of her friends are going on to university or are doing further training
after they leave school. Elizabeth just wants to work in her family’s business, a corner grocery
store. Her friends think she is wasting her ability — she regularly comes near the top of her class.
But when they ask her about what she really wants to do, she just shrugs and says that she wants
to please her father.
(c) Michael is aged 15. He has recently ‘come out’ to his friends. Most of them are OK with this,
but the word has got around the school. Many of the boys who used to be friendly are refusing to
speak to him now and others are calling him nasty names in the schoolyard. Some of the girls who
used to be his friends are looking at Michael in a funny way. While walking home alone, Michael
was physically attacked by a group of senior students from his school.
(d) Caitlin and William are both in Year 10. Caitlin was secretly hoping that William would ask her
out, but felt she could not make the first move. She was really attracted to him and spent lots of
time talking to him during lunch and at breaks, mainly about the school council they were both
on. She tried to drop hints about how she felt about him, but it took a long time before the penny
dropped. At last the long-awaited phone call came — it was William asking her to go out to a
movie.
(e) Luke is in his first year of teaching at a co-educational high school. During the year he has noticed
how certain students ‘hang out’ together. One group seems to consist of the brightest and most
academic students, another is mainly interested in and good at sport. Another group consists of
kids who do not seem to fit in well and who spend most of their free time playing computer games.
Another group is mainly male with a few ‘hangers on’ who are girls. Luke thinks members of this
group are the troublemakers in the school.
(f) Mr and Mrs Evans are extremely worried about 16-year-old Liam. He has begun to associate with
a group of older boys, some of whom have already left school and are unemployed. He stays out
until all hours, and will not tell his parents where he has been. Liam is becoming more and more
difficult to talk to and swears at his parents if they question him about his activities. They feel that
his new friends have far too much influence over him, most of which is bad. One of the older boys
in the group already has a police record, and seems to be the ringleader.
2 Madison has just turned 14 and has a new boyfriend, Jordan, who is a year older than she is. Several
weeks ago while her parents were out, she invited Jordan and some of her friends over to her house
to watch DVDs. Someone found a bottle of whisky and dared everyone to have a drink. The bottle
was passed around the group. Soon Madison was feeling very light-headed and a few drinks later
she passed out. The next morning she woke up in her own bed. Her clothes were on the floor and
CHAPTER 11 Psychosocial development in adolescence 635
Hoffnung, M. (2018). Lifespan development, 4th australasian edition. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com
Created from scu on 2020-05-03 03:25:01.
Copyright © 2018. Wiley. All rights reserved.
she had a vague and troubling memory of Jordan snuggling up against her bare back. She dismissed
the thought until her period was late. She waited another month, but her period was still overdue.
Madison bought a pregnancy test kit and found that her result was positive. She has just knocked on
the school counsellor’s door.
(a) How should the school counsellor deal with the situation?
(b) What are the risks to psychosocial development and possible outcomes for Madison if she decides
to go through with the pregnancy and to keep her baby?
(c) How can Madison’s parents, Jordan and her school best support her if she decides to keep her
baby and raise it herself?
ESSAY QUESTION
1 Explain the distinction between self-concept and self-esteem. What is known about the factors influencing
gender differences in self-esteem during adolescence?
WEBSITES
1 The Raising Children Network provides a resource for parents, providing evidence-based content from
pregnancy, to newborns, to teenagers: http://raisingchildren.net.au
2 The Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine (SAHM) is an organisation that is committed
to improving the physical and psychosocial health and wellbeing of all adolescents through advocacy,
clinical care, health promotion, health service delivery, professional development and research:
www.adolescenthealth.org/Home.aspx
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