Political Ecology Part 5: Land and Environment
Land Issues Stem From…
Extreme inequalities in land ownership in most Latin American countries
Most land is held by a tiny minority of wealthy landowners – the vast majority is left with either insufficient holdings or no land at all The fact continues to be a major source of political conflict and instability
The origins of inequality begin in the colonial period
Forms of Land Holdings from the Colonial Period
Plantations – tended to be located in areas where the indigenous population was less advanced (and were soon eliminated)
These were export oriented, for profit business – efficiently run operations
Forms of Land Holdings from the Colonial Period
Haciendas – tended to be located in areas with indigenous populations that were subject to the owners
Production was primarily for domestic markets – they were symbols of prestige (power and status) rather than a “business” like plantations – aristocrat culture with feudal relationship to peasants
Forms of Land Holdings from the Colonial Period
Smallholder communities – tended to be located in inaccessible or undesirable locations
Residual indigenous communities Retained pre Colombian practices
EX. communal land Numbers increased with poor mestizo peasants
Capitalist Agriculture
Plantation model grew at expense of the hacienda model (and smallholders) as foreign interest developed post independence (late 19th century) – most unequal continent in the world at the time
US companies became major landowners, turning plantations into modern capitalist farms – exporting wealth outside the region
Landowners with large holdings (local and foreign) became richer and more politically influential, acquiring more and more land
Peasant Agriculture
Population growth lead to increasingly insufficient land holdings as plots are further subdivided as families expand
Many are forced to seek work on plantations because the limited land cannot support families year round
70% of rural population in Central America are seasonal migrants
Many end up migrating to the slums in cities
Poverty and Extreme Poverty in Rural Areas, 1980 1999
Modern Agriculture
Development schemes with government investment – typically put into large scale export agriculture (favors plantations over the majority smallholders)
Colombia – 50 fold increase 1950 72; Mexico – irrigated its arid northwest
Alliance for Progress (1961) – US support of Latin American land reform after Cuban Revolution (wanted to quell discontent)
However, this development scheme typically had incompatible goals…
Redistribute land and wealth to rural poor so they don’t go the way of Cuba Increase productivity and modernization of agricultural sector (which typically means consolidating land in large scale farms)
Modern Agriculture
Today, agricultural MNCs have drawn back from direct control of land, preferring instead to contract out to local farmers Local farmers take the risks (like crop failure) and deal with labor issues
Power is still in the hands of large scale agriculture, which has a monopoly on land, capital, credit, state support, and access to global markets
Competition for Land Commercial agriculture – spread into peasant farms forcing smallholders out
Through: money, legal trickery (deeds), brute force (armed thugs)
Peasants – seized idle lands, organizing political movements to demand agricultural reform
EX.Movimento dos Trabalhadores Rurais Sem Terra (MST) in Brazil
Largest social movement in Latin America (1.5M) 3% of landowners control 2/3 of arable land
Competition for Land Plantations – most disputes are over labor issues such as wages and working conditions Government response to demands for land (and to reduce urban tensions) have been Colonization Programs
Governments use colonization of the frontier as an alternative to land reform But the land is often unsuitable for agriculture and/or it is located in remote areas that would necessitate outrageous transportation costs
EX: Mexico’s Land Reform Came out of Mexican revolution (1910 1917 ) – Article 27 of the Constitution Major land reform efforts under Lazaro Cardenas (1934 1940) – helped to solidify PRI clientilism
Broke up haciendas, gave 1.5M families land Ejido system is practiced in many indigenous communities: communally owned land administered by Indian communities along traditional lines Although land was redistributed, there was a failure to reform the necessary credit/investment – overall, done little to improve living standards
Constitutional reform in 1990’s allowed piecemeal privatization of ejido lands
A reason for the Zapatista uprising in 1994
Neoliberal restructuring has put past gains in reverse across the region
Environmental Issues
Land viewed as a resource base for exploitation with no sense of stewardship (a European model) since colonization Major environmental issues in the region…
deforestation soil erosion agricultural pollution industrial pollution poverty’s affect on the environment
Issue: Deforestation 62% of world’s remaining tropical rainforest are located in Latin America – 12% had been destroyed by mid 90’s Why are forests destroyed?
Pastures for cattle; large scale agriculture Colonization programs by governments
By peasants for agriculture Development projects – dams and industries Logging
What are the costs of deforestation? Erosion of topsoil Disruption of the local climate Forest resources for the poor lost Loss of way of life for indigenous Loss of biological diversity/genetic materials Loss of commercial potential Loss of “carbon trading” potential
Amazon Deforestation
Issue: Agricultural Pollution
Soil Erosion Agriculture contributes to soil erosion in a number of ways
Land distribution is a factor – peasants are often located on marginal lands (like hillsides) – not practicing sustainable methods Mechanized agriculture can also be inefficient in maintaining soil integrity
Chemical Inputs Pesticide companies often claim philanthropic pursuits Chemicals are typically only used on export crops (too expensive for peasant farmers) – but the health effects are felt locally
Spraying chemicals puts them into the air, and workers are often not given adequate safety instructions or safety gear Irresponsible management – not ensuring proper use Pesticide treadmill – more and more is needed as pest become resistant Protective legislation/regulation is often ignored
Chemical Company’s Materials for Workers
Philanthropic Pursuits of Agro Chemical Industry?
Monsanto people around the world are taking action, within their business teams and through their individual volunteer efforts. They work to develop systems that reward innovation in underserved markets, make our products and research safe, help their communities through volunteer efforts and charitable giving, and contribute to collaborative work environments.
Helping families to improve food production and nutrition, including research on reducing the impact of pests on subsistence crops Science education, with grants being given to communities near Monsanto facilities for programs that support greater science literacy Work that benefits the environment, including programs that promote environmental education and awareness, improve water quality, improve wildlife habitat, and encourage conservation Community efforts, including arts and cultural events, local school projects, human needs programs, and community services projects
Issue: Development and Industrial Pollution
Predilection for “big” development projects Massive dams equal hydroelectric power – industries typically spring up around them
Problems: debt, displacement, environmental/habitat destruction (reservoir), climate/geologic change, loss of arable land, parasitic disease (from standing water), siltation Pressure on international agencies have changed policy (less mega dams being built); but countries still paying off debt from these projects
Itaipu Dam & Reservoir : Brazil/Paraguay
Issue: Development and Industrial Pollution
Extractive industries – mining and oil Environmental damage integral, unavoidable; also accidents
Other industries spring up around them as well Small producers also a problem – gold prospectors on indigenous lands in Amazon use mercury which contaminates water and land
Oil Spill in Ecuadorian River
Expansion of Shrimp Farms in Honduras
Effects of Shrimp Farms
Issue: Restructuring and Population
SAPs – push for export led growth (raw material production)
NTAE (non traditional agricultural exports): require more chemical inputs than traditional/non export products (EX: shrimp farms) Maquiladoras: well known industrial polluters
Population Issues – urban areas Smog in urban areas – industry, automobiles (75%), etc. ISI – unchecked industrialization and agricultural policies which forced increased urbanization Booming population growth since 1950s*
Air Quality in Mexico City
The post Political Ecology Part 5: Land and Environment appeared first on Versed Writers.