Abstract
Zha (2003) argues that internationalization will become increasingly important in the higher education sector because academic and professional requirements for graduates increasingly reflect the demands of the globalization of societies, economies, and labour markets, and as a result, higher education must provide adequate preparation to meet these requirements. Similarly, Ramdas (1997) suggests that adult education is uniquely positioned to make an empowering intervention on behalf of the underprivileged in every society, and to do that, adult educators must internationalize the curricula to prepare global citizens to contest the negative impact of globalization. To this end, the purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which adult education faculty and programs in Canada and the U.S. are preparing global citizens as evidenced by the internationalization of research, curricula, and pedagogy. Data were collected through analyses of Adult Education Research Conference (AERC) and Canadian Association for the Study of Adult Education (CASAE) conference proceedings (1995–2010) and program offerings from Internet sites of selected adult education programs. The findings suggest that adult educators of higher education must make more purposeful attempts at the internationalization of research, curricula, and pedagogy that highlights and contests the hegemonizing effects of globalization on individuals and societies, and work to prepare graduates for responsible global citizenship in a civil society.
Résumé
Zha (2003) mentionne que l’internationalisation sera de plus en plus importante dans le secteur de l’enseignement supérieur parce que les exigences universitaires et professionnelles des nouveaux diplômés doivent de plus en plus tenir compte des exigences de la mondialisation des sociétés, l’économie et les marchés du
The Canadian Journal for the Study of Adult Education/
La Revue canadienne pour l’étude de l’éducation des adultes
24,2 April/avril 2012 51–70
ISSN1925-993X (online)
© Canadian Association for the Study of Adult Education/
L’Association canadienne pour l’étude de l’éducation des adultes
52 Alfred/Guo “Toward Global Citizenship”
travail, et, par conséquent, l’enseignement supérieur doit fournir une préparation adéquate pour répondre à ces exigences. De même, Ramdas (1997) suggère que l’éducation des adultes est particulièrement bien placé pour faire une intervention au nom de l’autonomisation des personnes défavorisées, dans chaque société, et pour ce faire, les éducateurs d’adultes doivent rendre les programmes d’études accessibles afin de préparer les citoyens du monde à contester les impacts négatives de la mondialisation. A cette fin, la présente étude examine dans quelle mesure dans une faculté d’éducation en éducation des adultes et des programmes au Canada et aux États-Unis on prépare les citoyens du monde comme en témoignent l’internationalisation de la recherche, des programmes, et la pédagogie. Les données ont été recueillies au moyen d’analyses du CREA et actes de conférence ACEEA (1995-2010) et les programmes offerts à partir de sites Internet de certains programmes d’éducation des adultes. Les résultats suggèrent que les éducateurs d’adultes de l’enseignement supérieur doivent faire des efforts plus déterminés à l’internationalisation de la recherche, les programmes et la pédagogie qui permettrait de valoriser et de contester les effets hégémoniques de la mondialisation sur les individus et les sociétés et de travail pour préparer les diplômés pour une citoyenneté mondiale responsable dans une société civile la société.
Introduction
During the last century, pursuit of education has become an ideal the world over (Suarez-Orozxo, 2007). According to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, higher proportions than ever before are completing post-secondary education (Cohen, Bloom, & Malin, 2007). The 2006 Canadian census reveals that 6 out of every 10 adults aged between 25 and 64 had completed some form of post-secondary education in 2006, ranking sixth among all OECD countries (Statistics Canada, 2008). Suarez-Orozxo observes that schools across the world—whether in Africa, the Americas, Asia, Europe, or Oceania—tend to share some basic features: they are designed to prepare students to become engaged citizens, ethical human beings, and productive workers who will contribute to the societies in which they live. However, she laments that educational institutions are out of sync with the realities of a global world yet have an obligation to prepare graduates for global citizenship. This is particularly important at a time when we live and work in a world “where national borders are permeable; information and ideas flow at lightning speed; and communities and workplaces reflect the growing diversity of cultures, languages, attitudes, and values” (Green, 2002, p. 12). The role of adult education in preparing global citizens is unclear, however, because the voices of adult educators are often missing from such deliberations.
Since the early 1970s, globalization has changed the world we live and work in. According to Smith (2007), globalization is fueled by two contradictory phenomena—production and consumption. Smith describes globalization as the restructuring of capital, the integration of financial markets, and the movement of jobs to foreign countries. Similarly, Wagner (2004) notes that the term globalization has become shorthand for the
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condition of our time. While some view this phenomenon with skepticism, others see it as an inescapable worldwide occurrence with tremendous magnitude for the way we organize our lives. If globalization is such a vibrant force that affects the current order, there is good reason to assume that adult education is not insulated from the impacts of globalization. Thus, it becomes imperative for adult educators to understand global issues and their local effects on individuals and communities. One suggestion for accomplishing this goal is through the process of internationalization.
More scholars in higher education than in adult education have, in fact, written about internationalization. According to Enders and Fulton (2002), internationalization is influenced by immigration and globalization and represents “deliberate, systematic, and integrated attempts by national governments, supranational agencies, and higher education institutions themselves to engage in a range of international activities” (p. 1). Knight (2004) specifically describes the internationalization of higher education as the process of integrating an international, intercultural, or global dimension into the purpose, functions, or delivery of post-secondary education. Accordingly, Ninnes and Hellsten (2005) observe that the internationalization of education is happening at a rapid pace in response to a diverse set of conditions, while Bauman (2002) sees these conditions to be the result of a rapidly increasing globalizing world with crumbling state borders and a worldwide supranational network of capital, knowledge, and knowledge capital. Suarez-Orozxo (2007) sees international migration as the human face of globalization. Therefore, to ignore the impact of globalization would be to ignore the realities of immigration and its impact on individuals, groups, and societies. Because of these changing conditions, education is becoming an increasingly contested domain that continues to empower some groups while it alienates the less powerful members of society. Adult education, through its research and teaching functions, can contest the marginalization of groups and individuals who do not mirror the profile of those from mainstream societies. After all, social justice and equity are the hallmarks of adult education.
Among the less powerful stakeholders are the immigrant and international students who are rapidly browning the population of adult education. These profound changes in the demographic composition of today’s adult education call for disciplinary programs to redefine curricula and practice to create space for the experiences and worldviews of the newcomers while enriching the experiences and expanding the worldviews of local citizens. Adult education as a disciplinary field of study must meet today’s expectations for educating students to live, work, and learn in a global and civil society. This is particularly important for Canada and the U.S., which are being vastly impacted by the inflow of newcomers to their shores—hence the significance of this comparative study. To be more specific, the study focused on formal adult education and examined the extent to which adult education faculty and programs in both countries are moving toward the process of internationalization in preparing graduates for responsible global citizenship in a civil society.
54 Alfred/Guo “Toward Global Citizenship”
A Closer Look at Globalization, Global Citizenship, and Internationalization
A closer examination of globalization reveals that the neglect of the social dimension is “rather glaring” in the current literature, particularly with regard to questions of social inequality, power, and the global–local relationship (Robertson & White, 2007). It is evident that globalization from above favours open markets, free trade, deregulation, and privatization, all of which work for the benefit of wealthy nations and, moreover, the economic elite of these nations. Some scholars draw attention to the ways in which markets and deregulation produce greater wealth at the price of increased inequality (Appadurai, 2002). There is evidence suggesting that we are experiencing widening gaps between the haves and the have nots in global society, devastating environmental problems, declining civic participation and community, and increasing mistrust and alienation among citizenries (Welch, 2001). Global capitalism, it seems, has created a global society that is unequal and unjust (Hall, 2000; Jarvis, 2002).
Another aspect that deserves our attention is the implications of globalization for education. As Welch (2001) points out, globalization is having substantial effects on education, as manifested in the homogenization, commodification, and marketization of higher education. Furthermore, globalization creates “a fragmented and uneven distribution of just those resources for learning, teaching, and cultural criticism” (Appadurai, 2002, p. 273) that are most vital for the formation of democratic research communities. In her analysis of the impact of globalization on adult education, Sumner (2008) argues that globalization affects every aspect of adult education, including its role in society, funding, access, curricula, teaching, learning, technology, and outcomes, and has, in fact, turned it into a technocratic, market-driven, individualistic section of the service industry.
In light of the negative consequences of globalization, it is believed that education can play an active role in preparing for global citizenship. Like globalization, global citizenship is a contested term with a high level of abstraction. For some scholars, it is an ethical claim about universal values and transnational responsibility (Dower, 2008). For others, it is an ethos, or a set of moral principles and codes of conduct (Pike, 2008). Still for others, it is a philosophy of human rights (Abdi & Shultz, 2008). In recent years, educating for global citizenship is gaining prominence in post-secondary education. According to Shultz (2011), current research in global citizenship education mainly focuses on the following five areas: the problems of domination by the economic project of a neoliberal global market; global governance structures and processes that describe citizens’ relationship to nation-states in a globalized context; the growth and emergence of social movements to address issues that extend beyond nation-states, such as environmental destruction, climate change, or health issues; the need for understanding global social justice that includes cognitive justice; and the inclusion of multiple epistemologies within education. More importantly, Shultz argues, educating global citizenship needs to be guided by three fundamental questions: Whose knowledge counts in a global citizenship education? Who does knowledge serve when educating global citizens? Can global citizenship education expand the possibilities of the public good by strengthening a global public sphere?
While much of the debate about global citizenship continues, some of the discussion has shifted to the exploration of the best ways of promoting it. According to Pike (2008), globalization does not nurture global citizenship. On the contrary, propelled by the
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relentless pursuit of economic growth, competitiveness, and profitability, globalization, in fact, works against the higher ideals of global citizenship. Hence, some scholars are turning to international education as a possible alternative in educating for global citizenship (Gacel-Ávila, 2005; Mestenhauser, 1998).
While some (Knight, 2004; Ninnes & Hellsten, 2005; Welch, 2001, 2002) see a dichotomy between globalization and internationalization as Pike (2008) does, others reject such dichotomist approaches, arguing that internationalization and globalization are interrelated with, rather than distinct from, each other. Currie, DeAngelis, de Boer, Huisman, and Lacotte (2003) disagree, noting a distinct difference between globalization and internationalization. They hold the position that the use of the term globalization represents neoliberal economic ideology and its material strategies that aim to increase profits and power for transnational corporations, and similar strategies enabling government agencies to gain economic advantages and a competitive edge. The authors further argue that the process of globalization promotes “homogenization of cultures and promotion of so called ‘world’s best practices’ where one idea is considered to be the best strategy to progress within the world economy” (p. 9). If we agree that globalization has such hegemonic effects on individuals, groups, and communities, then adult education has a responsibility to prepare graduates to contest the marginalizing effects while recognizing the potential reward for internationalizing curricula and research.
Unlike globalization, internationalization represents a positive exchange of ideas and people that recognizes and respects differences and traditions between nation-states (Currie et al., 2003; Gacel-Ávila, 2005). To that end, Zha (2003) argues that internationalization will become increasingly important in the higher education sector because academic and professional requirements for graduates increasingly reflect the demands of the globalization of societies, economies, and labour markets, and as a result, higher education must provide adequate preparation to meet these requirements. There is a general agreement, however, that the notion of international education primarily comprises international exchanges in order to learn about other countries. According to Harman (2005), for example, the international dimensions of education also embrace practices such as global movements of teachers and researchers, the diversification of the curriculum, educational programs offered across national borders using technologies, bilateral and multilateral agreements among universities, and the commercial export of education. Internationalization is often seen as a counter-hegemonic approach that prepares students for work and leadership in the context of global interdependence (Schoorman, 2000).
In summary, the process of globalization is a contested terrain. Global capitalism has created a global society that is unequal and unjust. As Currie et al. (2003) reported, anti-globalization protests have aimed at corporate globalization or neoliberal globalization, arguing that inequalities within the world are growing as a result of free trade across borders. Adult education had a long and proud tradition in international cooperation and understanding (Guo, Schugurensky, Hall, Rocco, & Fenwick, 2010; Hall 2000; Holst, 2006; Sumner, 2008). The question is whether adult education can reclaim its roots and play a more active role in educating for global citizenship and strengthening global civil society.
56 Alfred/Guo “Toward Global Citizenship”
Research Methodology
To reiterate, the purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which adult education faculty and programs in Canada and the U.S. are moving toward the internationalization of research, curricula, and practice to prepare graduates adequately for responsible global citizenship in a civil society. Noting that academic transformation begins with the creation and dissemination of knowledge, two primary questions guided our investigation: (1) What is the level of faculty engagement in international research? (2) In what ways do adult education programs reflect an international perspective in curricula?
As mentioned earlier, the study focused on formal university adult education, particularly graduate programs and research, as internationalization is often institutionalized. One of the approaches in the investigation of the internationalization of education is the process approach identified by Zha (2003) in the context of higher education. This approach stresses the integration of an international and intercultural dimension into teaching, research, and service through a combination of activities, policies, and procedures. As with any organizational change effort, there is concern with long-term sustainability, and according to Zha, the process approach recognizes such a concern. To that end, this approach places much emphasis on programmatic and research activities as well as organizational policies and practices. This approach was particularly useful in our current research as we explored the internationalization of formal adult education primarily through research and curricula activities.
We employed a qualitative research design that used content analysis (Patton, 2002) to mine the data. Thus, we conducted the following activities in generating the data: (1) a review and analysis of the 1995–2010 conference papers from the Adult Education Research Conference (AERC) and the Canadian Association for the Study of Adult Education (CASAE) conference for evidence of faculty engagement in international/intercultural research, and (2) a review of the curricula and program offerings from selected universities for evidence of an international perspective.
In conducting the analysis of the conference proceedings, we reviewed each paper title and abstract for such key words as immigration, migration, international education, globalization, cross-cultural studies, comparative education, and cross-national study, among others. We also included studies with names of international countries and cultures in the title or abstract. The second set of data analyzed were program offerings and course descriptions of the top 10 institutions in the U.S. and the top 10 universities in Canada that offer adult education graduate programs. We used Internet sites for this procedure. For Canada, we searched one prime university in each of the 10 provinces. The top 10 U.S. rankings came from a benchmark survey conducted by the adult education faculty of Texas A&M University in 2003. The faculty surveyed educators from adult education programs and asked them to provide a list of the programs they considered to be the top in the nation. We visited the websites of these universities and reviewed program information and course descriptions that were current as of April 2011. One limitation of this selection process is that other university adult education programs engaged in internationalization activities may not have been identified in the benchmark survey. Also, we did not interview adult education scholars and program leaders to gather information on their engagement in international activities. However, we believe the results of the review of the AERC
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and CASAE research conference proceedings provided strong evidence of the extent to which North American adult educators were engaged in research that involves issues of globalization and international concerns. Moreover, these two conferences are the prime venues for the dissemination of research for Canadian and U.S. adult education scholars.
Findings
Overall, the results show a lack of critical-mass engagement in research related to global issues. For Canada, we searched a total of 1,103 CASAE conference presentations over the 16-year period, and only 83 papers (7.52%) related to the broad themes of immigration, internationalization, or globalization. For AERC, we reviewed a total of 1,360 papers and found 104 presentations (7.64%) that focused on issues beyond local concerns (see Tables 1 and 2).
It is clear that not much attention has been devoted to the issues of globalization and internationalization among adult education scholars in the two countries. This finding reflects similar observations from other mapping projects about the under-representation of globalization in current research (Butterwick, Fenwick, & Mojab, 2003). Drawing from analyses of journal articles, conference proceedings, and graduate thesis abstracts, Butterwick et al. examined the extent to which liberatory themes, such as anti-racism, feminism, globalization, social movements and social justice, and equity issues, were evident in Canadian adult education research in the 1990s. The study revealed that globalization was often “named as an issue, but for the most part not analyzed in any substantive manner” (p. 16). We also found similar neglect, but the few studies we identified represented a rich diversity of topics, and scholars took both an individual and a collaborative approach to international research.
One positive development worth noting is the increasing number of presentations in recent years in both countries on topics related to one aspect of globalization, namely, immigration. From 2006 to 2010, a total of 32 presentations with an international perspective were given at CASAE conferences, and 26 of them focused on issues of immigration. A similar pattern was found in the U.S. During the same period, among 36 presentations we identified as related to our theme, 16 reported research associated with issues facing new immigrants. This reflects recent social changes in North America as a result of globalization. As Anderson (2002) notes, one of the new world disorders created by globalization is mass migration. Where migration is a requirement of and a response to globalization, globalization also accelerates migration. It is evident that globalization and migration are inextricably intertwined. It is important that adult educators in both countries turned their attention to such issues and examined the interconnected relationship and implications for adult education. Overall, we found a rich diversity of research on international issues and evidence of transnational collaborations.
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